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groupe verbal temps (présent / prétérit) et formes verbales (present perfect) > valeurs
comment exprimer un bilan : present perfect (have aux + p. passé), présent ou prétérit ?
Chris Britt The State Journal-Register Cagle
10.1.2004
present perfect
Le bilan jusqu'au présent, provisoire ou définitif, est l’une des valeurs du present perfect actif (have auxiliaire + p. passé) ou passif (have auxiliaire + been auxiliaire + p. passé) En anglais américain, le prétérit peut remplir cette fonction.
Rappel : Dans certaines grammaires, -EN symbolise le participe passé. -EN n'est que le symbole grammatical du participe passé : increase, increased, increased / take, took, taken / cut, cut, cut / go, went, gone / bring, brought, brought.
L’énoncé-bilan au present perfect répond à la question : Où en est-on / quoi de neuf / quelles sont les dernières données sur tel sujet / événement ?
Ce bilan est souvent comparatif : on compare l'état / l'évolution d'un fait / événement par rapport / depuis à un fait / événement de référence.
Ce bilan au present perfect peut prendre diverses formes : statistique, résumé d’une tendance, état des lieux / constat, dernier décompte en date, résultat, conclusions d'une enquête, liste des dernières améliorations, des nouveaux avantages, etc.
La période de référence du bilan peut être délimitée dans le temps...
Government’s Disaster Response Wins Praise
April 30,
2011
TUSCALOOSA, Ala. — It has been the deadliest natural disaster on American soil [ événement ] since [ depuis ] Hurricane Katrina. [ événement de référence ]
Government’s Disaster Response Wins Praise, NYT,
30.4.2011,
... ou implicite (à partir d'un point chronologique non précisé, jusqu'au point de l'énonciation) :
Drug Use Has Increased in Afghanistan, U.N. Report Says
Drug Use Has Increased
in Afghanistan, U.N. Report Says, NYT, 21.6.2010,
11.5.2007
The Guardian p. 5 21.8.2006
Lyons report Ministers stall radical shake-up of council
tax Thursday March 22, 2007
The Guardian Weekend p. 4 26.8.2006
The Guardian Weekend p. 31 7.10.2006
LOS ANGELES (Reuters) - Suicides of U.S. Marines have reached their highest level in five years, prompting a Defense Department effort to encourage Marines to seek mental health services, a Marine Corps spokesman said on Tuesday. But spokesman Bryan Driver said there was no evidence linking the higher suicide rate
with the long tours of duty and
frontline fighting Marines have engaged in Iraq.
surpassing the 28 who killed themselves in 2001 as the United States invaded
Afghanistan, Driver said. have had the military's highest suicide rate -- about 25 per year among 178,000 active duty troops since 1999, the year the government began keeping detailed records. U.S. Marines Suffer Most Suicides in Five Years, R, Tue Dec 21, 2004 06:57 PM ET, http://www.reuters.com/newsArticle.jhtml;jsessionid=SLIY3FFEE5GUMCRBAEKSFFA?type=domesticNews&storyID=7154053
In the last 10 years, new sexually transmitted infections in England have more than doubled to nearly 1.5m a year. "We have a problem of growing seriousness," said Ms Johnson.
Explicit ads target sex
diseases among young :
FRANKFURT (Reuters) - Natural disasters have killed nearly five times more people in 2003 than they did last year, partly due to the earthquake in Iran and the summer's heat wave in central Europe, the world's top reinsurer said on Monday. Heat
Wave, Earthquake Lift '03 Disaster Death Toll,
Mon December 29, 2003
12:31 PM ET,
So far Texas has executed 336 people since the state resumed executions in 1982. A total of 23 convicts have been put to death in the state this year. Both totals lead the nation.
Governor
Stays Texas Woman's Wednesday Execution, R, Wed Dec 1, 2004 06:35 PM ET,
As every school child knows, there have been ravens at the Tower of London since time immemorial, and if they ever leave, the monarchy and the tower itself will fall.
Tower's raven mythology may be a Victorian flight of fantasy, G,
15.11.2004,
Saddam 'destroyed' WMD after 1991
Saddam Hussein did not have weapons of mass destruction, it has finally been confirmed. The group hunting for Saddam's arsenal said it found no evidence the dictator had chemical, biological of nuclear weapons when US-led forces invaded Iraq last year. After 16 months of searching, the Iraq Survey Group concluded Saddam had "essentially destroyed" his banned weapons after the 1991 Gulf War. Headline and first §§, PA, 7.10.2004, http://www.pa.press.net/story.php?ID=A15522161097087938A0
A peace deal to end Africa's longest civil war has finally been signed. The fighting in Sudan, which has raged intermittently for nearly 50 years, has claimed two million lives. War ends after 50 years, DT web frontpage, 27.5.2004.
The prison population has reached a new record, passing the 75,000 mark for the first time, the Prison Service said today. Prison population hits new record, I, 8.3.2004, http://news.independent.co.uk/uk/crime/story.jsp?story=499154
Palestinians marked the third anniversary of their uprising against Israeli occupation yesterday, but there was no sign either side has a strategy to end the violence that has so far killed at least 3,163 people, 502 of them children. Intifada's terrible toll leaves peace a distant dream, I, 29.9.2003, http://news.independent.co.uk/world/middle_east/story.jsp?story=448056
The reality matched the hype yesterday as the latest Harry Potter book continued to fly off the shelves at a record rate. (...) Amazon, the online retailer, said the novel had broken internet sales record, with more than 1.3m advance orders worldwide, including more than 420,000 in the UK. Harry casts worlwide spell, GI, p. 5, 23.6.2003.
The Guardian p. 16 23.10.2004
La période de référence du bilan peut n'être pas révolue au moment de l'énonciation. Cette période peut être plus ou moins longue.
L'énonciateur part d’un point x dans un passé plus ou moins proche, et fait un bilan jusqu’au moment présent où il parle / écrit.
L'énoncé-bilan en have + participe passé (present perfect) renvoie à des faits qui peuvent donc encore exister au moment où l'on parle / écrit, contrairement à l'énoncé-bilan au prétérit, qui renvoie souvent à du révolu, à de l'historique :
Throughout Europe, 250,000 Jewish lives were saved [ prétérit passif ] by diplomats whose work will be honoured at an exhibition to be opened in London this month by Peter Hain, the Minister for Europe. 'British Schindler' saved 1,000 Jews from Nazis, The Times, p. 6, 5.4.2002.
Exceptions > Expression d'un bilan au prétérit les dépêches de l'agence Reuters sont presque toutes au prétérit, même lorsqu'il s'agit d'un bilan (toll) :
BAGHDAD (Reuters) - The U.S. military death toll in Iraq reached 1,000 on Tuesday nearly 18 months after the invasion to topple Saddam Hussein, making its mark on the U.S. presidential election campaign.
U.S. Iraq Death Toll Hits 1,000, Two
Italians Seized, Wed Sep 8, 2004 12:19 AM ET, R,
§1, 8.9.2004
Exceptions > Expression d'un bilan au prétérit bilan d'un fait révolu et dont l'expression s'inscrit dans une narration au prétérit (concordance des temps) :
Church Attack Seen as Strike at Iraq’s Core
November 1, 2010
BAGHDAD — Blood still smeared the walls of Our Lady of Salvation Church on Monday. Scraps of flesh remained between the pews.
It was the worst massacre of
Iraqi Christians since the war began here in 2003. Church Attack Seen as Strike at Iraq’s Core, NYT, 1.11.2010, http://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/02/world/middleeast/02iraq.html
Les marqueurs de temps (groupe adverbial, proposition) utilisés avec le present perfect indiquent souvent une période qui n’est pas achevée, qui court jusqu'au présent de l’énonciation -> liste de ces marqueurs.
Certains énoncés-bilan au present perfect n’ont pas de marqueur de temps.
Le point de départ de la période de référence est implicite : l’important, c’est le présent (1-4).
Le present perfect sert également à donner des informations d’autre type que le bilan : breaking news
1 - In U.S. Airstrikes, Afghan Civilians Have Paid a Heavy Toll Headline, NYT/Le Monde, p. 5.
2 - Muggings, mobile phone thefts and other street crimes have fallen sharply in the 10 worst crime areas in England, David Blunkett announced yesterday. Blunkett claims success in war on street crime, GE2, p.5, 13.9.2002.
3 - Life expectancy in America has risen to a record 77 years and the gaps between the longevity of blacks and whites and men and women have narrrowed, a US government report says. Life gets longer in land of junk food, T, p. 20, 14.9.2002.
4 - Fifty sites have been searched [ present perfect passif ] and 3,000 people have been interviewed [ present perfect passif ].
The number of Chinese migrant workers who died after becoming trapped by rising tides while picking cockles in Morecambe Bay has risen to 18. 18 dead in cockle picking disaster, Ananova, 6.2.2004, http://www.ananova.com/news/story/sm_863170.html
A charity battling against diseases in Africa will be helped by our appeal, which has raised £221,721 so far. Your
donation can help medics fight Africa's measles epidemic, O, 28.12.2003,
Conservative support has reached 40% for the first time in over a decade, according to a poll published today.
Poll shows Tory support at 40%,
G, 23.1.2004,
Buenos Aires was considered one of the safest cities in the Americas. But since 1995, theft has doubled. The murder rate has risen almost 50 per cent since 1998, the year the country began its painful economic decline. Today, there are more than 10 murders per 100,000 inhabitants - a figure equalled only during the 1970's, when the military dictatorship "disappeared" Argentines by the thousands. (...) The number of people caught trafficking or possessing drugs has more than doubled since 1997. Argentina's traumatic lurch into high crime, FT, p. 4, 4.6.2003.
Britain has enjoyed the sunniest March for more than 40 years, according to met office figures released yesterday. Record-breaking hours of sunshine have been experienced [ present perfect passif ] in England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. Sunniest March for 40 years, GE, p. 5, 1.4.2003.
Ever since Simon Dee's first broadcast from the MV Caroline in 1964, pirate radio has played a crucial role in forming Britain's musical taste. (...) Fraudster has been involved [ present perfect passif ] in pirate radio since he was 13. Hold tight the massive, GE Friday Review, p. II-III, 22.11.2002.
Hundreds of birds have already fallen victim to the spill Photo caption, I, p. 5, 20.11.2002.
Refugees have now spent three days there. BBC radio 4, Today, 12.11.2002.
Sixty-five per cent of the human population has never made a telephone call, and one-third has no access to electricity or any other form of commercial energy. Power for everyone, GE, p. 7, 17.9.2002.
"Caine's performance is among the best he has ever given" The Quiet America, ad, TLS, 22.11.2002, last page.
In the ten days since she left us, there have been countless tributes and expressions of affection and respect, including those of the many people who have queued and filed patiently past her coffin. 'Strength, dignity and laughter', Queen Mother's funeral, GE, p. 4, 10.4.2002.
So now we know: up to 4.7 million people have died in the Democratic Republic of Congo's four-and-a-half-year civil war. Counting the dead, GE, p. 8, 10.4.2003.
The site has accumulated more than 4.5 million registered users since it was established 18 months ago in the bedroom of a house in Barnet, North London, by the husband-and-wife team of Steve and Julie Pankhurst. Teacher blames website for insult, T, 14.3.2002.
Nationwide, meth use has nearly tripled since 1994, and there are now far more regular users of meth than crack, according to the annual survey of drug use done for the National Institute on Drug Abuse. Drugs, Poverty and Crime Plague Rural U.S., NYT/Le Monde, p.4, 15/16-12-2002.
He's a top marksman. He's not picky about his victims. He says he is God and has claimed eight lives - so far. Psycho-sniper's sharpe eye, O, p. 18, 13.10.2002.
The amateur sleuth, who identifies himself only as D.U.A. has tantalised Belgium over the past week with internet claims that he has solved the enigma that has baffled police, art experts, psychics and Adolph Hitler's personal art squad for 68 years. Sleuth promises to solve riddle of lost painting, T, p. 3, 3.10.2002.
Sales of sniper weapons have increased rapidly in the past decade Photo caption, 0, p. 19, 13.10.2002.
Twelve million people are suffering from starvation in countries such as Malawi and Zimbabwe ; it is one of the biggest humanitarian disasters we have ever seen. New from McDonald’s : the McAfrika burger (don’t tell the 12m starving), GE, p. 1, 24-8-2002.
Since 1995, the number of vehicles on our roads has grown by 15 per cent while the population has risen by just three per cent. Carnival spirit rules the day, M, p. 4, 2-5-2002.
Britain’s special relationship with the United States has been strained [ present perfect passif ] in recent months by that country’s willingness to go it alone on Iraq and by its withdrawal from international treaties on the environment. US row over London congestion charge, GE, p. 5, 16.9.2002.
At least 60 prostitutes have been murdered [ present perfect passif ] in the past ten years – probably more. Mean streets, G2, 16.9.2002, p. 3.
It’s now been five months since she disappeared. Mean streets, G2, 16.9.2002, p. 3.
Three times he has been nominated [ present perfect passif ] for the Oscar for best actor and if he fails to win this time, Hollywood’s critics will have a field day. Will talent out this time?, O, p. 27, 24-3-2002.
In France, 400,000 jobs have been created [ present perfect passif ] by shorter working hours. Long day’s journey into shorter working hours, O, Cash supplement, p. 26, 24-3-2002.
But her death has revealed some significant divisions in the 21st century Britain she leaves behind. The most obvious is the familiar gap between left and right. Uncertain farewell reveals a nation divided, GE, p. 1, 1-4-2002.
Les énoncés 1-2, extraits de la Une de l'édition internet du Guardian du 28.1.2004, montrent bien la différence de point de vue entre present perfect et prétérit.
Dans les deux cas, l'information vient juste de tomber.
1. Fait passé, présenté de façon ponctuelle, presque décontextualisée (les opérations militaires en Afghanistan sont un peu oubliées) : gros plan sur la mort du soldat. Cette mort n'est reliée à aucune autre. Il n'y a pas de bilan.
A British soldier died today and four others were injured following an explosion near a military base in the Afghan capital Kabul, the Ministry of Defence (MoD) said. British soldier killed in Afghan blast, G / Agencies, 28.1.2004, http://www.guardian.co.uk/afghanistan/story/0,1284,1133058,00.html
2. Bilan provisoire (at least) du nombre de morts palestiniens au cours des derniers affrontements en date dans la bande de Gaza : plan d'ensemble / panoramique en cours.
At least 13 Palestinians have died, Israel's Army Radio reported today, in the deadliest clashes in the Gaza Strip for over one month. Israeli army says 13 Palestinians dead in Gaza clash, G / Agencies, 28.1.2004, 10am update, http://www.guardian.co.uk/israel/Story/0,2763,1133036,00.html
peuvent eux aussi exprimer un bilan
The Guardian p. 11 13.11.2004
1. Enoncés-bilans au présent
More people are going to the cinema now than at any time in the past 30 years.
2. Enoncés-bilans au prétérit : Bilan sur une période passée. La période de référence est présentée comme révolue, ne court pas jusqu'au présent de l'énonciation.
New Jersey’s Ethnic Makeup Shifts, and Population Drifts Southward
February 3,
2011
In the last decade, the number of white people in New Jersey declined as the number of Asians and Hispanics soared, and the population shifted southward — some of the many shifts with broad cultural and political implications that were revealed in
2010 census figures released on Thursday. reversing five decades of contraction, and the second-largest, Jersey City, grew 3.1 percent, to more than 247,000. But populations declined in several of the largest and most heavily minority cities and towns, including Paterson, Trenton,
Camden, Union City, East Orange, and Irvington. the total population dropped 11.2 percent in Irvington and 8 percent in East Orange, both places that are predominantly black. At the same
time, the cities became much more heavily Hispanic. but that was far behind the 9.7 percent national growth rate.
New Jersey’s Ethnic Makeup Shifts, and Population Drifts
Southward, NYT, 3.2.2011,
Factory Activity Growth Fastest in 20 Yrs Fri January 2,
2004 CHICAGO (Reuters) - U.S. factory activity expanded at the fastest pace in 20 years in December, the Institute for Supply Management said on Friday, adding to evidence that a manufacturing recovery is under way and lifting the economy. R, Friday, January 2, 2004, http://www.reuters.com/newsArticle.jhtml?type=businessNews&storyID=4065825
Même s'il vient juste d'avoir l'information-bilan et de la mettre aussitôt en ligne, le journaliste utilise le prétérit car cette information sur la production industrielle américaine concerne le mois de décembre, période révolue.
A noter aussi :
a - le journaliste ne donne pas de point de départ à ce bilan. b - le corps des dépêches de Reuters est presque toujours au prétérit.
Le texte suivant (article du Guardian) est intéressant en ce qu'il montre, pour une information similaire - bilan statistique mensuel publié le mois suivant -, un traitement verbal différent :
Monthly car production figures have risen [ present perfect ] for the first time since last October, it emerged yesterday. A total of 151,848 cars were made [ prétérit passif ] in Britain in March 2003 - 2,7% more than in March 2002, the office for national statistics said. Production for the home market was down 16.7% last month, but export production rose 15.8%. Car production increases, GE, p. 12, 29.4.2003.
Dans ce article, extrait d'un article publié le 29 avril, le journaliste utilise tout d'abord le present perfect pour faire un bilan statistique sur une période donnée, à partir d'une date précise (since last October).
Quoi de neuf (breaking news) ? En mars, et ce pour la première fois depuis octobre, la production mensuelle d'automobiles a augmenté :
Monthly car production figures have risen for the first time since last October.
Bien que le bilan soit arrêté en mars, mois révolu, le journaliste emploie le present perfect car :
1 - pour lui, la période de référence se poursuit implicitement jusqu'au 28 avril, lorsqu'il rédige son article (for the first time since last October). Il y a effet d'annonce.
2 - ce bilan a un point de départ. Rappel : have + participe passé + since + marqueur de temps passé.
3 - autre raison pour utiliser le present perfect : cette forme verbale s'utilise très souvent pour mettre en scène l'information "qui tombe" (voir Present perfect > Breaking the news). Or, le journaliste vient juste d'avoir cette information : yesterday = 28 avril -> il prend connaissance de l'information et écrit son article.
Le journaliste passe ensuite au prétérit pour faire un gros plan sur le mois de mars, période révolue, avec un compte-rendu détaillé de la production de voitures :
A total of 151,848 cars were made [ prétérit passif ] in Britain in March 2003.
Autres énoncés-bilan au prétérit :
Consumer credit grew at its slowest pace for the last seven years in December, according to data released yesterday by the Bank of England. Borrowing increased by 0.5% last month, the lowest figure since March 1997. The £834m rise was far less than the £1.4bn rise the City had been expecting. Credit slowdown foxes the City, G, 31.1.2004, http://money.guardian.co.uk/creditanddebt/debt/story/0,1456,1135953,00.html
An American soldier was killed, and two others were injured, in Baghdad yesterday when a rocket-propelled grenade was fired at a military ambulance. The soldier was the third member of the US military to die in the Iraqi capital in the past three days. He was the latest in a list of casualties since Saddam Hussein's fall. Another US soldier is killed by Iraq grenade attack, GI, p. 11, 20.6.2003.
House prices posted a strong rise this month, helping to offset some of the stock market losses homeowners will have suffered, Nationwide building society said yesterday. House price rises offset dwindling markets, GE, p. 11, 31.1.2003.
Explication : cet article fait un bilan mensuel des prix de l'immobilier. La date de publication est le 31 janvier ; ce mois est présenté comme une période révolue, d'où le prétérit.
Over the past decade, Cowgate enjoyed an urban renaissance, its cheek-by-jowl gathering of pubs, clubs and the Gilded Balloon comedy club becoming increasingly fashionable. And then came the recent fire. Thirteen buildings in this World Heritage site were gutted. What, then, will happen to this gloriously atmospheric quarter of old Edinburgh? How can anyone hope to re-create the rich life, let alone the haunted patina of buildings that have developed their special character over recent decades and past centuries? Starting over, GE/GE2, p. 6, 30.12.2002.
Over the past decade, Cowgate enjoyed... -> bilan d'une période révolue (1990-2000) -> prétérit.
... buildings that have developed their special character over RECENT decades and past centuries -> la période de référence du bilan court jusqu'au présent -> present perfect.
Ce n'est donc pas seulement over qui appelle telle ou telle forme verbale, mais aussi le sens du GN : over the past decade -> prétérit. over recent decades and past centuries -> continuité passé-présent -> present perfect.
In many ways, 2002 was a good year for the theatre. Standards of acting, directing, design and lighting were astonishingly high. New plays poured out in abundance. And the effects of the government's extra £25m in funding began to be felt, not least in more adventurous regional programming. Yet there was something missing: a strange dearth of plays that grappled with public issues or portrayed what is like to live in Britain today. Modern life is rubbish, GE, p. 10, §1, 18.12.2002.
Immigration soared by 25 per cent to reach almost 126,000 people last year, according to official figures published yesterday. Immigration increases by quarter to a record, T, p. 12, 29.11.2002.
20bn texts were sent worldwide in 2001 - 1bn in the UK. 'Hi, I'm in G2, G2, p. 3, 11.11.2002.
The employers’ organisation said the rate of annual growth last month was the strongest for almost 14 years as the early Easter and good weather lured out shoppers. Hopes lift for manufacturing recovery, DT, Sport Pullout, p. 35, 2-5-2002.
Unemployment in Britain tumbled to its lowest level in 27 years last month as the retail boom outweighed widespread job losses in manufacturing and IT. UK unemployment drops to lowest level in 27 years, T, Business, p. 1, 12.9.2002.
The results of the British Crime Survey, published yesterday, suggested that crime fell by 9% during 2002. Public blind to fall in crime: Street robberies drop by 23%, but more feel at risk, G, p.6, 5.4.2003.
Les énoncés suivants montrent bien la différence entre le prétérit et le present perfect / present. Dans la deuxième phrase, l'énonciateur se veut factuel : il rapporte un bilan sur une période révolue (last year = 2002) et utilise donc le prétérit.
A la phrase suivante, il fait un bilan, dont la période de référence
implicite court jusqu'au
présent : At the same time n'est pas ici un marqueur de temps passé. Cette séquence argumentative se traduit par "pourtant / cependant / mais", et non pas "sur la même période". Les deux GV suivants sont d'ailleurs au présent : end et has never been.
We are living in a boom time for rape. Last year women reported 27% more rapes than in the year before. At the same time, convictions have plummeted to a record-breaking low: only 5.8% of reported rapes end with a conviction, down from 7.5% in 1999 and 33% in 1977. Not just a boom time for rape, then - also a boom time for rapists. There has never been a better time to rape and get away with it. Sexual violence
is encouraged by the law, the media and wider culture:
Valeur bilan du prétérit reprise de l'information initiale (reprise détaillée ou non)
Britain has enjoyed the sunniest March for more than 40 years, according to met office figures released yesterday. Record-breaking hours of sunshine have been experienced in England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. England and Wales experienced an average of 5.41 hours of sunshine each day, the sunniest since records began in 1961, beating the previous record of 5.04 hours in 1995. In Northern Ireland there was an average of 5.23 hours, again the sunniest since 1961, beating the 4.74 hours of 1982, and in Scotland the story was the same - 4.86 hours of sunshine each day, beating the 4.06 hours seen in 2001. Sunniest March for 40 years, GE, p. 5, 1.4.2003
A 12-year-old girl has become the first person under 16 in Britain to be electronically tagged, it emerged yesterday. [ début de l’article ] The device, fitted to her right leg, is active 24 hours a day, seven days a week. Tom Stacey, director of the Offenders Tag Association, said the girl was at the lowest age at which anyone could be tagged in Britain and was the first person of her age to be tagged. Girl, 12, becomes youngest Briton to be tagged, GE, p. 7, 20-5-2002.
Bilan au prétérit avec marqueur de temps passé
Insertion d'un événement dans une chronologie explicite / implicite
Présentation historique d'un événement
Bomb
takes US toll in Iraq war to 500
Roadside bomb
leaves five dead
when a roadside bomb killed three US soldiers and two Iraqi troops. The Americans, from the 4th Infantry Division, and the Iraqis, from the Iraqi Civil Defence Corps, died when their patrol was hit by a powerful roadside bomb at Taji, 20 miles north of Baghdad. Two artillery shells buried in the ground detonated at 7:45am, destroying a Bradley Fighting Vehicle. Two other US soldiers were injured and were flown by helicopter back to a field hospital in the capital where they were in a 'stable' condition last night. Headline, sub and first §§, O, 18.1.2004, http://observer.guardian.co.uk/iraq/story/0,12239,1125655,00.html
The death of four more American soldiers in Iraq yesterday took to 102 the number killed in military action since President George Bush announced the end of major combat operations. Death toll passes 100 for US occupation forces, I, 18.10.2003, http://news.independent.co.uk/world/middle_east/story.jsp?story=454564
Alex
DT
6.2.2004
Voir aussi
Present perfect > marqueurs de temps Anglonautes > Grammaire > Groupe Verbal > Present perfect > Valeurs > Breaking News Anglonautes > Grammaire > Prépositions / Conjonctions > For / Since
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